By the early 20th century, the Cherokee Nation stood on the edge of political erasure. Federal assimilation policies, particularly the Dawes Act of 1887 and the Curtis Act of 1898, targeted tribal sovereignty and communal land ownership.
These laws were created to disband Native governments and divide tribal lands into individual allotments in order to promote assimilation into American society. In reality, however, they broke tribal unity and made Indian lands available for white settlement. The leadership, people, and traditionalists of the Cherokee Nation reacted in a number of ways; some were obedient, some were hostile, and many were in a state of intense conflict.
In 1903, W. C. Rogers was elected Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation. He faced a grim reality: the U.S. government had already made its decision through legislation like the Curtis Act, which terminated tribal courts and governments. Ironically, the Curtis Act was spearheaded by Charles Curtis, a Congressman from Kansas and later Vice President of the United States, who himself was enrolled in the Kaw Nation. For many Cherokees, this was a painful twist, as someone with Native ancestry was orchestrating the dismantling of their nation.
Despite his oath to uphold the Cherokee Constitution of 1839, Rogers opted not to hold the mandated election in 1905. Instead, he continued with existing legislative officers to handle the closing affairs of the Cherokee government. This decision outraged many citizens who saw it as an abuse of power. Critics accused Rogers of avoiding the election to maintain political control and push through policies without the consent of the people. His refusal to follow constitutional procedure led to deep divisions, especially among those who believed in defending Cherokee self-governance to the very end.
In defiance of Rogers’ refusal to hold elections, Frank J. Boudinot called for an independent election in August 1905. A faction of Cherokee citizens elected him principal chief and swore him in that November. Boudinot and his newly seated council quickly introduced articles of impeachment against Rogers, accusing him of suspending Cherokee laws and usurping powers that rightfully belonged to the National Council.
However, the U.S. Department of the Interior did not recognize Boudinot’s authority, instead continuing to support Rogers as the official Principal Chief. Rogers remained in office until he died in 1917, navigating the final days of an autonomous Cherokee government.
Meanwhile, efforts to preserve Native governance reached a desperate pitch. For example, in 1905, the Five Civilized Tribes, including the Cherokee, convened to draft a constitution for a proposed State of Sequoyah, which would encompass Indian Territory. It was an attempt to create a Native-controlled state as an alternative to full assimilation into the American system. However, the movement was short-lived. The U.S. Congress rejected the proposal, and in 1907, the Indian and Oklahoma Territories were merged to form the State of Oklahoma.
Within the Cherokee Nation, traditionalist factions such as the Keetoowahs were especially vocal in their opposition. In 1906, thousands gathered near Tahlequah to protest the political trajectory. Among them, the Nighthawk Keetoowahs, led by respected traditionalist Redbird Smith, voiced their refusal to participate in any process that would legitimize the demise of Cherokee sovereignty. Smith believed that involvement in statehood, delegate selection, or county elections would implicate them in the “wreck and ruin” of the Cherokee people. Their defiance was not only symbolic but also a last expression of cultural and political self-determination.
Despite the odds, the Cherokee Nation never gave up on its identity. Though stripped of official government functions after 1907, the people retained their traditions, language, and a quiet but determined sense of nationhood. The response to allotment was conflict, compromise, and deep emotion. But what bound the people together was a shared understanding of loss and a continued hope for revival.
Today, the echoes of that struggle still inform Cherokee political life. Leaders reflect on this history as both a cautionary tale and a source of inspiration. It’s a testament to a people who, even in the darkest of times, refused to accept extinction and whose descendants continue to fight for recognition, restoration, and rightful governance.
For additional information about the Cherokee Nation and its values, we suggest reading Cherokee Nation-Proceed Undaunted.
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